Ely greater increase in mPGES-1 transcription rather than reduced PGDH transcription due to our observation of an increase in PGDH protein in sub-acute tendon injuries. In furthersupport of this, PGDH kinetics have shown it to be a short lived enzyme whose replacement is dependent upon de novo protein synthesis at the level of translation rather than that of transcription, due to the prolonged half life of PGDH mRNA [47]. Thus, PGDH mRNA is present in low abundance as a stable moiety, presumably as a mechanism for rapid and precise control of enzyme activity. Although these data suggest PGE2 levels MedChemExpress 80-49-9 should be 1531364 increased due to elevated mPGES-1 mRNA, the observed reduction in PGE2 levels in sub-acute injury compared to normal and chronic injuries could be explained by the increased PGDH protein levels in sub-acute injury. This suggests a secondary (cellular) MK8931 clearance mechanism for PGE2 degradation whereby local PGE2 levels can be regulated [46]. The increased vascularity of tendon that occurs after recent injury may also be a contributing factor to the paradoxical lower levels of PGE2 after injury [48], as the increased vascular perfusion is likely to facilitate efficient systemic prostaglandin clearance. In addition to vascular clearance, the lower levels of PGE2 in sub-acute tendon injury could also be attributable to lipid substrate re-routing towards the resolving pathways that are activated during inflammation. These recently discovered pathways demonstrate critical roles in the switching of lipid mediators from the prostaglandin to the lipoxin axis, returning injured tissues to their previous state [49] by depleting PGE2 levels due to reduced arachadonic acid substrate availability. Indeed, the current study shows significantly increased LXA4 levels in sub-acute injury compared to normal and chronic injured tendons, suggesting pro-resolving processes are active during the early stage of tendon injury. The alterations in the profile of lipid mediators during this time include low PGE2 and elevated LXA4 levels compared to normal and chronic injuries and suggest lipid mediator class switching is active in the early phase of tendon injury. We propose this class switching represents an endogenous protective mechanism to limit the degree of damage to tendon ECM and preserve tissue integrity. This concept is supported in part by the findings from this study, demonstrating combined stimulation of normal tendon explants with 5 ngml-1 IL-1b and 0.01 mM or 1.0 mM PGE2 1662274 induced LXA4 release, with greater production with the higher dose of PGE2. It has been previously shown in an identical experimental system that addition of 1.0 mM PGE2 to normal tendon explants induced maximal LXA4 release after 72 hours in tissue culture [16]. These observations suggest that PGE2 may exert anti-catabolic effects onProstaglandins and Lipoxins in TendinopathyFigure 7. FPR2/ALX protein expression in tendon explants in vitro. (A) FPR2/ALX protein expression is shown for IL-1b stimulated macroscopically normal tendon explants derived from horses ,10 years of age (n = 5) or 10 years of age (n = 8). There was significantly greater FPR2/ALX expression by tenocytes in IL-1b stimulated explants from horses less than 10 years of age compared to older horses (P = 0.01). Data represent average FPR2/ALX expression whereby 2 replicates were analysed per horse and median values are shown. (B) Panel of representative 2dimensional confocal images illustrating FPR2/ALX express.Ely greater increase in mPGES-1 transcription rather than reduced PGDH transcription due to our observation of an increase in PGDH protein in sub-acute tendon injuries. In furthersupport of this, PGDH kinetics have shown it to be a short lived enzyme whose replacement is dependent upon de novo protein synthesis at the level of translation rather than that of transcription, due to the prolonged half life of PGDH mRNA [47]. Thus, PGDH mRNA is present in low abundance as a stable moiety, presumably as a mechanism for rapid and precise control of enzyme activity. Although these data suggest PGE2 levels should be 1531364 increased due to elevated mPGES-1 mRNA, the observed reduction in PGE2 levels in sub-acute injury compared to normal and chronic injuries could be explained by the increased PGDH protein levels in sub-acute injury. This suggests a secondary (cellular) clearance mechanism for PGE2 degradation whereby local PGE2 levels can be regulated [46]. The increased vascularity of tendon that occurs after recent injury may also be a contributing factor to the paradoxical lower levels of PGE2 after injury [48], as the increased vascular perfusion is likely to facilitate efficient systemic prostaglandin clearance. In addition to vascular clearance, the lower levels of PGE2 in sub-acute tendon injury could also be attributable to lipid substrate re-routing towards the resolving pathways that are activated during inflammation. These recently discovered pathways demonstrate critical roles in the switching of lipid mediators from the prostaglandin to the lipoxin axis, returning injured tissues to their previous state [49] by depleting PGE2 levels due to reduced arachadonic acid substrate availability. Indeed, the current study shows significantly increased LXA4 levels in sub-acute injury compared to normal and chronic injured tendons, suggesting pro-resolving processes are active during the early stage of tendon injury. The alterations in the profile of lipid mediators during this time include low PGE2 and elevated LXA4 levels compared to normal and chronic injuries and suggest lipid mediator class switching is active in the early phase of tendon injury. We propose this class switching represents an endogenous protective mechanism to limit the degree of damage to tendon ECM and preserve tissue integrity. This concept is supported in part by the findings from this study, demonstrating combined stimulation of normal tendon explants with 5 ngml-1 IL-1b and 0.01 mM or 1.0 mM PGE2 1662274 induced LXA4 release, with greater production with the higher dose of PGE2. It has been previously shown in an identical experimental system that addition of 1.0 mM PGE2 to normal tendon explants induced maximal LXA4 release after 72 hours in tissue culture [16]. These observations suggest that PGE2 may exert anti-catabolic effects onProstaglandins and Lipoxins in TendinopathyFigure 7. FPR2/ALX protein expression in tendon explants in vitro. (A) FPR2/ALX protein expression is shown for IL-1b stimulated macroscopically normal tendon explants derived from horses ,10 years of age (n = 5) or 10 years of age (n = 8). There was significantly greater FPR2/ALX expression by tenocytes in IL-1b stimulated explants from horses less than 10 years of age compared to older horses (P = 0.01). Data represent average FPR2/ALX expression whereby 2 replicates were analysed per horse and median values are shown. (B) Panel of representative 2dimensional confocal images illustrating FPR2/ALX express.
